交易成本经济学-第13部分
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Gilson; Ronald: The Law and Finance of Corporate Acquisitions Mineola; NY: Foundaton Press 1986
Goldberg; Victor: “Regulation and administered contracts”, Bell Journal of Economics; 7:426~452 1976
Gros*an; Sanford J and Oliver D Hart: “The costs and benefits of ownership: A theory of vertical and lateral integration”, Journal of Political Economy; 94:691~719 1986
Hadfield; Gillian: “Problematic relations: Franchising and the law of inplete contracts”, Stanford Law Review; 42:927~992 1990书包 网 。 想看书来
比较经济组织:对离散组织结构选择的分析(18)
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Holmstrom; Bengt; and Paul Milgrom: “Multitask principalagent analysis”, Journal of Law; Economics; and Organization (in press) 1991
International Herald Tribune: “Soviet economic development”,June 5:5 1990
Jensen; Michael; and William Meckling: “Theory of the firm: Managerial beh*ior; agency costs and capital structure”, Journal of Financial Economics; 3:305~360 1976
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Klein; Benjamin; R A Crawford And AAAlchian: “Vertical integration; appropriable rents and the petitive contracting process”, Journal of Law and Economics; 21:297~326 1978
Knight; Frank H: “Review of Melville JHerskovits Economic Anthropology”, Journal of Political Economy49:247~258 1941
Koopmans; Tjalling: “Concepts of optimality and their uses”, American Economic Review; 67:261~274 1977
Kornai; Janos: “On the theory of economic sociali*”, In Benjamin Lippincott(ed)On the Economic Theory of Sociali*: 55~143Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press 1986
Light; Ivan: Ethnic Enterprise in America: Business and Welfare among Chinese; Japanese and Blacks; Berkeley; CA: University of Calfornia Press 1972
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Masten; Scott:: “A legal basis for the firm”, Journal of Law; Economics and Organization; 4:181~198 1988
Masten; Scott; James Meehan and Edward Snyder: “The costs of organization”, Journal of Law; Economics and Organization; Vol 7(in press) 1991
Michelman; Frank: “Property; utility and fairness: The ethical foundations of just pensation law”, Harvard Law Review; 80:1165~1257 1967
Milgrom; Paul; Douglass North; and Barry Weingast: “The role of institutions in the revival of trade”, Economics and Politics; 2:1~23 1990
Montias; Michael: “The Structure of Economic Systems”, New H*en; CT: Yale University Press 1976
Newman; Barry: “Poland’s farmers put the screws to leaders by holding back crops”, Wall Street Journal; October 25:A1 and A10 1989
North; Douglass: “The new institutional economics”, Journal of Theoretical and Institutional Economics; 142:230~237 1986
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Ward; BN: The Socialist Economy: A Study of Organizational Alternatives New York: Random House 1967
Williamson; Oliver E: Markets and Hierarchies; New York: Free Press1975
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可信的承诺:用抵押品支持交易(1)
第7章
可信的承诺:用抵押品支持交易奥利佛·威廉姆森(OLIVER E WILLIAMSON)
可信的承诺和可信的威胁具有以下共同特征:两者都与不可撤销的专用投资有关系。然而,可信的承诺是用来支持结盟、促进交易,可信的威胁则表现出冲突与竞争的特征。应该注意到,我使用威胁与承诺这两个术语与Curtis Eaton和Richard Lipscy(1981)的不一样。他们区分了空头威胁与可信威胁,并用承诺一词来指代后者。我认为,威胁很合适用做竞争的语言,而且应保留承诺一词来描述交易。因此,可信威胁与不可信威胁将在评估竞争行为时被区分开来。同样,可信承诺与不可信承诺则将在评价交易时被区分开来。联盟会使情况复杂化,因为联盟的组织牵扯到另外一方,这在总体上是有益的,但也不一定。比如,供应商可能形成一个相对于买方的联盟,并可能造成不利社会的结果。因此,同时支持交易又推动联盟的可信承诺有时候也需要进行权衡。前者涉及旨在维护关系的互惠行动,后者则是为抢先争取优势的单边努力。支持交易的努力一般是为效率服务的;相反,先发制人的投资通常会产生不良的社会效果。显然,两者对政治学和经济学都很重要,但是相对于可信的威胁来说,对可信承诺的研究更为基础。
然而,对可信威胁的关注要比可信承诺广泛得多,而且,研究可信威胁的文献要比可信承诺发展得更为充分。最近在经济学中的应用涉及到为了阻止新的进入而进行的专用性资本投资(*inash;Dixit;1979;1982; Eaton and Lipsey;1981;Richard;Schmalensee;1981)。关于经济学文献中对声誉效应以及准可信性的讨论,参见D*id Kreps and Robert Wilson (1982); Paul Milgrom and John Roberts(1982); 和Williamson (1982b)这种不平衡与Thomas Schelling在其关于讨价还价的经典文献(1956)中对二者的论述是一致的,该文主要强调的是一方可以通过“绑住双手”来实现竞争优势的策略。但是Schelling也论述了承诺问题,尽管很简略。他察觉到“讨价还价可能要关注‘激励’制度和收益分配”(p300),他在一个脚注中补充道,早期交换抵押品是为了提供激励(p300;fn17)。
对可信承诺的研究相对受到忽视,对此,有人用法律和经济学的共同假设来解释:法律体系在执行承诺时是具有完备知识、熟练的且低成本的。尽管很有启发性,但这个简便的假设却与事实不一致,实际上其他的或者可以替代的治理模式已经出现。创造和提供抵押品的双边努力是有意义的,它的出现有着重大的经济意义。由于缺乏对“私人安排”优点的认识和赞同,用抵押品来支持现时交易的建议就容易被当做幻想而忽视。然而,我认为,不仅广泛用于实现可信承诺的抵押品的各种经济等价物,而且未能认识到抵押品所服务的经济目的也会导致反复出现的政策失误。
第Ⅰ部分勾勒了契约研究的私人安排方法。第Ⅱ部分提出了一个用于评估各种备择合同效率的简单模型,其中一种合同涉及到抵押品。这个模型证明,供给方进行的投资受到购买方激励的影响。第Ⅲ部分讨论了超出该模型范围的激励复杂性。第Ⅳ、Ⅴ部分阐述了这一论点在单边和双边交易中的应用。第Ⅵ部分考察与石油交易和公共政策态度有关的一些证据。 。。
可信的承诺:用抵押品支持交易(2)
Ⅰ私人安排(Private Ordering)
A缔约传统(Contracting Traditions)
大多有关交易的研究假定,有效地解决合同争议的法律规则已经确立,而且法庭会以一种具有完备信息的、熟练的和低成本的方式执行这些规则。这些假定具有便利性,因为这使得法律专家与经济学家不必考察个人通过设计私人秩序从而“退出或规避”国家治理框架的各种方式。这使得研究人员各司其职,即经济学家专注于随专业化和交易而自然增加的经济收益,而法律专家则重点关注契约法等专业问题。法律专家并未垄断对契约规则的改进。经济学家最近的贡献,参见Peter Diamond and Eric Maskin(1979)以及Steven Sh*ell(1980)关于契约的经济学分析方法关注法律规则的专业问题。而这里采取的研究方法认为,执行改进的法律规则代价高昂,因而私人安排得到广泛的运用。
“司法中心主义”的传统反映了这一倾向。它主张需要依靠外部法庭解决争端,而解决方案要按照规定以官方学习的形式提供,并通过政府支持的专业人士解决(Marc Galanter;1981;p1)。而事实并非如此。现行规则下的很多争议,甚至包含一些可以诉诸法庭的争议,都是通过废除、自我协商等形式解决的(Galanter;p2)。
“司法中心主义”这一假设的非现实性,可通过具有很多研究成果的完全交易模型来证明,这不是此处的争论点。我关注这个传统是因为,私人安排的法律和经济往往被当做结论作为背景来陈述。这是很不幸的,因为“很多